Discussion Questions

Data Analysis and Representation

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1. What ethical issues may arise during data analysis?

2. What are the common data analysis strategies used in qualitative research?

3. How might the overall data analysis process be conceptualized in qualitative research?

4. Do you anticipate any ethical issues with your research? Explain why.

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Chapter 7

Data Collection

Questions for Discussion • What are the steps in the overall data collection process of

qualitative research? • What are the key ethical considerations when collecting data? • How does a researcher find people or places to study? • What are typical access and rapport issues? • What decisions influence the selection of a purposeful

sampling strategy? • What type of information typically is collected? • How is information recorded? • What are common issues in collecting data? • How is information typically stored? • How are the five approaches both similar and different during

data collection?

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Data Collection Activities

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Data Collection by Approach (1)

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Data Collection by Approach (2)

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Data Collection: Site or Individual • Narrative

– Find 1+ individuals – Facet of relationships

• Phenomenology & grounded theory – Need not be single site

• Ethnography – Need single site

• Case study – Single or multiple sites

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Ethical Considerations • Protect anonymity by assigning numbers

or aliases • Explain to participants the purpose of the

study • Be aware of information shared off the

record that may harm individuals if reported

• Become familiar with the context and respectful of marginalized populations

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Institutional Review Boards

Submit a proposal

Most qual studies expedited

Minors or high risk: full review

Qual description may require quan language

Argue: qual interviews give participants control

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The Site or Individual Narrative • Individuals who are accessible, willing to talk • Inform participants of researcher motivation • Individuals can shed light on the issue

Phenomenology • Individuals must have experienced phenomenon • Can articulate their lived experiences

Grounded Theory • Participants participated in the process or action the

researcher is studying • May be dispersed to provide contextual information

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The Site or Individual (continued)

Ethnography • Single site • Intact culture-sharing group has developed shared

values, beliefs, and assumptions

Case study • Select a site or sites to study • May be programs, events, processes, activities,

individuals, or several individuals • Collective case study is acceptable

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The Site or Individual (continued) • Study in your own organization or place of

work raises issues of power and risk to researcher, participants, and site

• Data collection may introduce power imbalance between researcher and participants

• Can be political and jeopardize jobs • When necessary, include multiple validation

strategies

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The Consent Form Elements • Right of participants to voluntarily withdraw from

the study at any time • Central purpose of the study and the procedures

to be used in data collection • Protection of the confidentiality of the respondents • Known risks associated with participation • Expected benefits to accrue to the participants • Signature of the participant as well as the

researcher

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Purposeful Sampling Strategy

• Qualitative researcher use a purposeful sampling approach.

• Major decisions in purposeful sampling – Whom to select as participation or sites – The specific type of sampling strategy – The size of the sample to study

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Typology of Sampling Strategies (1)

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Typology of Sampling Strategies (2)

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Forms of Data Collection • Observations

– Field notes – Participant to non-participant

• Interviews – Closed to open-ended – Focus groups

• Documents – Private to public – Journals, letters, (auto)biographies, and records

• Audiovisual materials – Photos, videos, website, sounds, text messages, and

objects

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Innovative Data Collection • Online data collection

– Virtual focus groups, web-based interviews – E-mail or text-based chat – Internet message boards and social media – Consider ethics: consent forms

• Arts-based research methods • Visual ethnography • Photo elicitation

– Photovoice: participants take pictures

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Procedures for Interviewing

Decide transcription logistics Use good interview procedures

Obtain consent Locate distraction-free place Refine through pilot testing

Design & use an interview protocol Use adequate recording procedures

Distinguish type of interview Identify interviewees

Determine open-ended research questions

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Types of Observation

• Complete participant – Helps establish rapport

• Participant as observer – Participant role more salient

– Recording data may distract researcher

• Nonparticipant/observer as participant – Researcher as outsider

• Complete observer – Researcher neither seen nor noticed

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Steps for Observation

Prepare thick and rich notes immediately

Withdraw slowly

Have someone introduce you to build rapport

Record description and interpretation

Design and use an observational protocol

Distinguish type of observation base on observer role

Identify who or what to observe

Select site

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Recording Procedures • Interview protocol

– Use a header – Place space between questions – Memorize questions & order – Write closing comments

• Observational protocol – Header – Descriptive notes – Reflective notes

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Field Issues (1) • Entry and organizational access

– Convincing individuals to participate – Building trust & credibility – Researcher’s ‘stance’

• Procedures for observations – Role of inquirer & when to switch – Taking field notes, recording quotes – Funneling broad to narrow picture

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Field Issues (2) • Dynamics between interviewer and interviewee

– Phrasing of questions – Equipment; transcribing – Interviewer-interviewee relationship

• Power dynamics • Interviewees’ ability to articulate

• Documents and audiovisual materials – Locating materials & obtaining permission – Journaling

• What instructions • Appropriateness re writing skills • Reading handwriting

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Data Storage and Handling

Back up collected information

Use high quality recording equipment

Develop master list of information

types

Protect anonymity by masking names

Develop data collection matrix

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Five Approaches Compared • Types of data collection

– Case and narrative studies: multiple forms – Grounded theory and phenomenology: primarily interviews – Ethnography: participant observation and interviews

• Unit of analysis – Narrative, phenomenology, grounded theory: individuals – Case study: group of individuals – Ethnography: cultural systems

• Field issues – Ethnographers have written extensively, varies widely across all

approaches • Intrusiveness

– Phenomenology and grounded theory: less intrusive – Narrative, ethnography, and & case study: more intrusive

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